CHAPTER 6: Step 4 (Organize and Outline)After completing the first three steps of the Seven Steps to Effective Communication you are well on your way to an outstanding spoken or written product. Now it's time to talk about organizing and outlining, the final step in prewriting. A detailed outline helps you arrange your material logically, see relationships between ideas, and serves as a reference point to keep you on target as you write your draft. Think of your outline as the blueprint for your communication product, and realize that the time you spend preparing it will pay off when you start writing sentences and paragraphs.U.S. Air ForceUSAF_f44f343c-b6c9-11e2-b3e2-1be1e2f52354_57986aa2-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3cTo help you arrange your material logically, see relationships between ideas, and keep you on target as you draft._57986b88-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3cPurposeAdjust your purpose statement._57986c28-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c1Organizing: Finalizing Your Purpose Statement and Bottom Line Why are we talking about a purpose statement again? Didn’t we already determine our "bottom line" back in Step 1? Or did we? Sometimes information uncovered during the research process (Step 2) may point you in an unexpected direction. So do you tweak the data to match your original purpose? No! Now is the time to adjust the vector of your purpose statement to something you can reasonably support and live with. Supporting PointsEnsure every main point and supporting idea in your outline supports your purpose statement._57986d4a-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c1.1You're less likely to go astray during the outlining process if you write down your purpose statement and refer to it often. Every main point and supporting idea in your outline should support that purpose statement -- irrelevant facts or opinions should be eliminated. Discipline at this stage will save pain later. Bottom LinesIn most cases, state your bottom line early._57986dd6-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c1.2Organizing: get your bottom line up front (most of the time). In nearly every communication situation, you need to state your bottom line early in the message. In a direct or deductive approach, state your position, main point or purpose up front, then go into the details that support your main point. When you take a direct approach to communication, your audience is better prepared to digest the details of the message and logically make the connections in its own mind. Inductive ApproachIf your audience is likely to be hostile to your argument, provide your supportive points before stating the bottom line._57986e6c-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c1.2.1Hostile AudiencesThere is an exception to every rule, and you might want to be less direct when trying to persuade a hostile audience. In such a situation, if you state your bottom line up front, you risk turning them off before you build your argument -- regardless of how well it is supported. In this case you might consider using an indirect or inductive approach: you may present your support and end with your bottom line. Sometimes this successfully "softens the blow" and gives your audience time to warm up to your views. In the inductive approach, you still need an introduction, but it would be less direct... Use the inductive approach with caution; it’s an advanced technique and difficult to execute without confusing your audience. In an academic setting, seek your instructor’s advice before applying this method to your assignments. OutlineOrganize your main points and supporting ideas in a logical order._57986f02-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2The Outline: Why Do I Need One? To some people, preparing an outline looks like a chore. Though an outline does take some effort, it's a time-saver, not a time-waster: an outline organizes your main points and supporting ideas in a logical order. It allows you to see the flow of your ideas on paper without having to write out complete sentences and paragraphs. If the ideas don’t fit together or flow naturally, you can rearrange them without a lot of effort. Like the blueprint of a house, an outline makes the "construction process" efficient and effective -- and results in a better quality product. Does all writing require a detailed outline with several layers of detail? No. If you plan to write a short letter, message or report, a list of main points may be all you need. For longer papers, Air Force publications, reports, staff studies, etc., you’ll find a detailed outline is usually an indispensable aid. The outline then serves as the framework to write well-organized instructions, reports, background or position papers, letters and memorandums.StructureOrganize your argument into three parts._57986f8e-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2.1Outlining Structure: Three Parts -- Chapter 7 describes how most writing and speaking is organized into three parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Most of the work in developing an outline involves organizing the body of your communication, but if you are building a detailed outline on a lengthy written product, you should probably include the introduction and conclusion in the outline. Skilled communicators writing short, informal assignments may just outline the body and work out the introduction and conclusion during the drafting process.IntroductionIf you are building a detailed outline on a lengthy written product, you should probably include the introduction in the outline._0b63c1b4-fa78-11e7-ba6c-b106f5215f3c2.1.1BodyOrganize the body of your communication._0b63c39e-fa78-11e7-ba6c-b106f5215f3c2.1.2ConclusionIf you are building a detailed outline on a lengthy written product, you should probably include the conclusion in the outline._0b63c48e-fa78-11e7-ba6c-b106f5215f3c2.1.3Cardinal RuleEnsure any topic that is divided has at least two parts._5798709c-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2.2Outlining: The Cardinal Rule -- The cardinal rule of outlining: any topic that is divided must have at least two parts. Every "1" must have a "2" (and so forth) for every level. Some official publications violate this rule but this does not mean the standard has changed, only that the author did not follow the rule, either by direction or in error.Outlining FormatsFind out if there is a preferred standard outlining format and pick an approach for your project._5798716e-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2.3Headings and Structure Used in Formal Outlines -- Though most outlines you produce will never be seen by anyone else, the logic you develop in an outline will show through in your communications -- written and oral. You might also be asked to produce a formal outline for "public consumption" in some cases, such as these scenarios: * Your boss wants to review what you plan to cover before you start drafting. * You’re organizing the efforts of multiple writers who must work together. In these situations, it's helpful to have a consistent approach to outlining your project. A recent Internet search for outline formats yielded 3.6 million results; however, this handbook embraces only a few. Be consistent once you pick an approach and do your homework to find out if there is a preferred standard for your project.Classic FormatUse Arabic numerals and the lower-case Latin alphabet characters in an alternating pattern to identify the different levels of the outline. _5798720e-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2.3.1The Classic Outline Format -- The first option for an outline format is to use the classic outline format. The classic outline format uses Arabic numerals and the lower-case Latin alphabet characters in an alternating pattern to identify the different levels of the outline. Numbered FormatUse decimal numbers to designate as many levels as necessary._579872ae-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2.3.2The Numbered Outline Format -- The numbered outline is directed by Air Force Instruction (AFI) 33-360, Publications and Forms Management, for use in Air Force instructions. This format numbers every paragraph, indents each level one-quarter inch from the previous level, and wraps the text to align under the paragraph number. See AFI 33-360, paragraph 6.5.10.1, "Paragraph Numbering," for further details. The numbered outline format presented here is the final product format for AFIs; see AFI 33-360 for guidance on the format for drafting instructions. Modern FormatUse upper- and lower-case Roman numerals as well as upper- and lower-case Latin alphabet and Arabic numbers._57987362-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c2.3.3The Modern Outline Format -- The modern outline format is commonly used in Air Force PME courses. The modern outline is based on the The Chicago Manual of Style (16th Edition, pages 347-348). The modern outline uses upper- and lower-case Roman numerals as well as upper- and lower-case Latin alphabet and Arabic numbers. Remember to turn off the auto format function of your word processor when creating an outline. BodySelect a pattern that moves systematically and logically through your ideas from a beginning to a conclusion._57987402-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3Outlining the Body: Pick a Pattern -- Your next step is to select a pattern that enables you and your readers to move systematically and logically through your ideas from a beginning to a conclusion. Some of the most common organizational patterns are listed below. Your purpose, the needs of your audience and the nature of your material will influence your choice of pattern.Topical or ClassificationPresent groups of ideas, objects or events by categories._579874ac-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.1Topical or Classification Pattern -- Use this format to present groups of ideas, objects or events by categories. This is a commonly used pattern to present general statements followed by numbered listings of subtopics to support, explain or expand the statements. A topical pattern usually follows some logical order that reflects the nature of the material and the purpose of the communication. For example, if you are giving a briefing on helicopters, you might separate them into light, medium and heavy lift capabilities and briefly describe the weight limits for each category. You could begin with the lightest capability and move to the heaviest or begin with the heaviest and move to the lightest.Comparison & ContrastDiscuss similarities and/or differences between topics, concepts or ideas._57987560-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.2Comparison and Contrast Pattern -- Use this style when you need to discuss similarities and/or differences between topics, concepts or ideas. When you are describing similarities and differences, it often helps the reader to see a point-by-point comparison of the two items. For example, if you were writing a document that compares and contrasts certain characteristics of the F-22 and the F-16, you might go item by item, discussing similarities and differences between the two as you go.ChronologyDiscuss events, problems or processes in the sequence of time in which they take place or should take place._57987614-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.3Chronological Pattern -- When you use this pattern, you discuss events, problems or processes in the sequence of time in which they take place or should take place (past to present or present to future). This pattern is commonly used in writing histories, tracing the evolution of processes, recording problem conditions, and documenting situations that evolve over time. This approach is also used in official biographies, which are written in chronological order because they serve as a history of the member’s professional career. This pattern is simple to use, but judgment is required when deciding what events to leave in and what events to leave out. For example, if you were preparing a short biography to introduce a distinguished guest speaker, you may decide to emphasize experiences that demonstrate his subject matter expertise and leave out other important but less relevant details. When unsure what to include, think back to your purpose and audience.SequencingDescribe a sequence of steps necessary to complete a technical procedure or process._579876be-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.4Sequential Pattern -- The sequential or step-by-step approach is similar to the chronological pattern. Use this approach to describe a sequence of steps necessary to complete a technical procedure or process. Usually the timing of steps is not as important as the specific order in which they are performed. The outline on the first page of this chapter ("Seven Steps to Effective Communication") is an example of a sequential approach. The sequential approach is often used in manuals and other instruction books. For example, a Security Forces noncommissioned officer (NCO) in charge of small arms training might use this pattern when rewriting the teaching manual on how to safely inspect, load, fire, disassemble and clean weapons. Since safety is paramount, the process must be written in a precise, stepwise fashion to ensure that nothing is overlooked. Space or GeographyStart at some point in space and proceed in sequence to other points._5798777c-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.5Spatial or Geographical Pattern -- When using this pattern, you'll start at some point in space and proceed in sequence to other points. The pattern is based on a directional strategy -- north to south, east to west, clockwise or counterclockwise, bottom to top, above and below, etc. Let's say you are a weather officer briefing pilots about current and anticipated conditions in the geographic region where they will be flying a mission. You would most likely describe conditions in reference to the terrain and describe weather systems that will affect their mission on a map.Problem & SolutionIdentify and describe a problem and one or more possible solutions, or an issue and possible techniques for resolving the issue._5798783a-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.6Problem and Solution Pattern -- You can use this pattern to identify and describe a problem and one or more possible solutions, or an issue and possible techniques for resolving the issue. Discuss all facets of the problem -- its origin, its characteristics and its impact. When describing the proposed solution, include enough support to convince your readers the solution is practical and cost effective. After presenting your solution, you may want to identify immediate actions required to implement the solution. The problem and solution pattern may be used in several variations: * One Solution: Discuss the problem and follow with the single, most logical solution. * Multiple Solutions: Discuss the problem, several possible solutions, the effects of each and your recommendation. * Multiple Solutions, Pro-Con: This popular format includes a discussion of the advantages ("Pros") and disadvantages ("Cons") of each solution. Remember that a problem-solution pattern is not a format for a personal attack on an adversary; it's simply a systematic approach to use in persuading people either to accept your ideas or to modify their own ideas. Note that this example uses the same paragraph headings (purpose, background, discussion, views of others and recommendation) as used in the electronic staff summary sheet (eSSS) discussed later in this handbook.Reasoning or LogicState an opinion and then make your case by providing support for your position._579878f8-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.7Reasoning or Logic Pattern -- In this pattern, you state an opinion and then make your case by providing support for your position. This is the classic "logical argument" described in chapter 5. This approach works well when your goal is more than just discussion of problems and possible solutions. Use this pattern when your mission is to present research that will lead your audience down the path to your point of view!Cause & EffectShow how one or more ideas, actions or conditions lead to other ideas, actions or conditions._579879ca-fa33-11e7-94f6-a290f6215f3c3.8Cause and Effect -- You can use this pattern to show how one or more ideas, actions or conditions lead to other ideas, actions or conditions. Two variations of this pattern are possible: (1) begin with the effect, then identify the causes; or (2) begin with the causes, then identify the effects. The technique you use depends on the context of your discussion. Sometimes an effect-to-cause approach is used when your purpose is to identify WHY something happened. When might you use this approach? Let's say you are the president of the Safety Investigation Board following a fatal aircraft mishap (the effect). Your report might begin by describing the mishap itself, and then explain the factors that led up to the mishap and conclude with your determination of one or more causes for the effect. Sometimes a cause-to-effect pattern is used when your purpose is to explain HOW current actions or conditions (causes) may produce future consequences (effects). For example, someone might use this pattern to present how a series of causes -- larger automobiles, reduced financial incentives for energy conservation and reduced research funding for alternative energy technologies -- might result in an undesirable effect -- a US shortage of fossil fuels.2015-11-192018-01-15http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/saf_cio_a6/publication/afh33-337/afh33-337.pdfOwenAmburOwen.Ambur@verizon.net